RETRACTED: A methylotrophic origin of methanogenesis and early divergence of anaerobic multicarbon alkane metabolism.

Abstract

Methanogens are considered as one of the earliest life forms on Earth, and together with anaerobic methane-oxidizing archaea, they have crucial effects on climate stability. Yet, the origin and evolution of anaerobic alkane metabolism in the domain Archaea remain controversial. Here, we show that methanogenesis was already present in the common ancestor of Euryarchaeota, TACK archaea, and Asgard archaea likely in the late Hadean or early Archean eon and that the ancestral methanogen was dependent on methylated compounds and hydrogen. Carbon dioxide-reducing methanogenesis developed later through the evolution of tetrahydromethanopterin <i>S</i>-methyltransferase, which linked methanogenesis to the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway for energy conservation. Multicarbon alkane metabolisms in Archaea also originated early, with genes coding for the activation of short- or even long-chain alkanes likely evolving from an ethane-metabolizing ancestor. These genes were likely horizontally transferred to multiple archaeal clades including <i>Candidatus</i> (<i>Ca</i>) Bathyarchaeota, <i>Ca.</i> Helarchaeota, <i>Ca</i> Hadesarchaeota, and the methanogenic <i>Ca.</i> Methanoliparia.