Treatment Approach of Refractory <i>Helicobacter pylori Infection</i>: A Comprehensive Review.

Abstract

<i>H. pylori</i> is the most common infection in the world and is associated with gastrointestinal and extra-gastrointestinal manifestations, including peptic ulcer disease, gastrointestinal bleeding, and lymphoproliferative disorders. Despite being discovered less than half a century ago, antibiotic resistance, exacerbated by medication non-adherence and inefficacy of proton pump inhibitors, has grown substantially, explaining the rising incidence of refractory <i>H. pylori</i> infection. In this review, we discuss risk factors, treatment options, surveillance and follow-up, as well as emerging therapies for refractory <i>H. pylori</i>.