Exploring and analysing 3D and 4D camera based markerless technologies for human body anthropometrics in healthy individuals: a systematic review.

Abstract

With the rapid advancement of body scanning technologies, three- dimensional (3D) and four-dimensional (4D) modelling methods have gained attention as promising tools for assessing human body shape. However, methodologies used across studies remain highly variable. This systematic review aims to evaluate and summarize current techniques for 3D and 4D body shape assessment in healthy adults using markerless, camera-based technologies. Conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines, a comprehensive literature search was performed in PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Cochrane Library, and IEEE Xplore. The final search was completed on December 13, 2024. Studies were included based on the PICOST framework, focusing on healthy adult populations, use of markerless 3D/4D scanning technologies, and inclusion of circumference measurements. Risk of bias was assessed using the COSMIN tool, and evidence certainty was evaluated with the GRADE tool. From 1778 screened articles, 33 met all inclusion criteria. A variety of devices, software, and statistical methods were reported. Most studies focused on circumference measurements of the full body or specific regions such as the torso or limbs. Despite the growing interest in dynamic modelling, no studies were found that utilized 4D technologies for this purpose. This review highlights the current state of 3D body shape assessment using markerless systems and identifies a clear gap in the application of 4D technologies. The lack of methodological consistency and standardization underscores the need for further validation. Future research should aim to optimize and standardize the technologies to improve reliability and comparability.