Unravelling the Secret of Sulfur Confinement and High Sulfur Utilization in Hybrid Sulfur-Carbons.

Abstract

Understanding sulfur confinement and chemical transformation in hybrid sulfur-carbon materials is critical for advancing metal-sulfur batteries. Here, we investigate the structural evolution of a sulfur-rich polymer into a hybrid sulfur-carbon via inverse vulcanization and thermal condensation. Multiscale analyses reveal a stepwise transformation, beginning with the emergence of sulfur radicals at ∼175°C, followed by the progressive development of a carbon matrix above 300°C that stabilizes the radical species. Around 450°C, a transitional phase forms, consisting of conjugated carbon clusters covalently bonded to sulfur chains. This hybrid structure confines sulfur within pseudo-graphitic nanodomains, effectively suppressing polysulfide dissolution and enhancing redox stability. DFT simulations show how sulfur confinement modulates Na-S reaction energetics, while electrochemical testing confirms high sulfur utilization, delivering ∼1000 mAh <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <semantics><msubsup><mi>g</mi> <mi>SC</mi> <mrow><mo>-</mo> <mn>1</mn></mrow> </msubsup> <annotation>${\mathrm{g}}_{{\mathrm{SC}}}^{ - 1}$</annotation></semantics> </math> and 1200 Wh <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <semantics><msubsup><mi>kg</mi> <mi>SC</mi> <mrow><mo>-</mo> <mn>1</mn></mrow> </msubsup> <annotation>${\mathrm{kg}}_{{\mathrm{SC}}}^{ - 1}$</annotation></semantics> </math> , setting a new performance benchmark for room-temperature Na─S batteries. These findings provide critical insights into the correlation between structural evolution and electrochemical performance, offering design principles for next-generation sulfur-based electrodes.